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The Human Genome Project was started in October 1990, and the first draft sequences of the human genome were reported in April 2003.

== Origin of the term == The term genome was created in 1920 by Hans Winkler, professor of botany at the University of Hamburg, Germany.

For example, the standard reference genome of humans consists of one copy of each of the 22 autosomes plus one X chromosome and one Y chromosome.

Almost all eukaryotes have mitochondria and a small mitochondrial genome.

Algae and plants also contain chloroplasts with a chloroplast genome.

A few related -ome words already existed, such as biome and rhizome, forming a vocabulary into which genome fits systematically.

Vaccines can be made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins, or one of its surface proteins.

Vaccines help the immune system learn to recognize and fight specific diseases.

Vaccines have been instrumental in reducing the incidence of diseases like smallpox, polio, and measles.

Vaccines are essential for preventing the spread of infectious diseases and saving lives.

Vaccines can also help protect against non-infectious diseases, like cancer, by stimulating the immune system.

Vaccines undergo rigorous testing and approval processes to ensure their safety and effectiveness before being recommended for use.

== Classical immunology == Classical immunology ties in with the fields of epidemiology and medicine.

Nanopharmacology is the specialization of pharmacology in the nanoscale.

The two main areas of pharmacology are pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics.

Pharmacology is not synonymous with pharmacy, though the two terms are frequently confused.

The number of people worldwide diagnosed as living with diabetes has increased sharply in recent decades, from 200 million in 1990 to 828 million in 2024.

These numbers have already risen beyond earlier projections of 783 million adults by 2045.

The global expenditure on diabetes-related healthcare is an estimated US$760 billion a year.

The major types of diabetes are type 1 and type 2.

Gestational diabetes, a form that sometimes arises during pregnancy, normally resolves shortly after delivery.

Type 2 diabetes occurs when the body becomes resistant to insulin and thus glucose remains in the bloodstream instead of being absorbed by the cells.

In 3000 BCE, Egyptians performed amputations to treat infections.

The ancient Greeks studied anatomy and developed surgical instruments.

In the 16th century, the Renaissance surgeons improved surgical techniques.

The 19th century saw the development of anesthesia, reducing pain during operations.

Modern surgery includes minimally invasive procedures like laparoscopy and endoscopy.

Surgeons specialize in various fields, such as cardiothoracic, orthopedic, and neurosurgery.

They can either kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria.

Antibiotics are crucial for treating and preventing bacterial infections.

The limited number of antibiotics also have antiprotozoal activity.

In 2019, about 970 million people worldwide suffered from a mental disorder, with anxiety and depression being the most common.

From the perspectives of positive psychology or holism, mental health is thus not merely the absence of mental illness.

Cultural differences, personal philosophy, subjective assessments, and competing professional theories all affect how one defines "mental health".

Impairment of any of these is a risk factor for mental disorders, or mental illnesses, which is a component of mental health.

Mental health is associated with a number of lifestyle factors such as diet, exercise, stress, drug use and abuse, social connections, and interactions.

== Mental health in the digital age == Digital technology has an increasing impact on mental health.