kik

Formal logic is the study of deductively valid inferences or logical truths.

Informal logic is associated with informal fallacies, critical thinking, and argumentation theory.

Informal logic examines arguments expressed in natural language whereas formal logic uses formal language.

When used as a countable noun, the term "a logic" refers to a specific logical formal system that articulates a proof system.

Logic plays a central role in many fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, and linguistics.

Separate branches of epistemology focus on knowledge in specific fields, like scientific, mathematical, moral, and religious knowledge.

Naturalized epistemology relies on empirical methods and discoveries, whereas formal epistemology uses formal tools from logic.

Social epistemology investigates the communal aspect of knowledge, and historical epistemology examines its historical conditions.

== Definition == Epistemology is the philosophical study of knowledge and related concepts, such as justification.

Central concepts in epistemology include belief, truth, evidence, and reason.

As one of the main branches of philosophy, epistemology stands alongside fields like ethics, logic, and metaphysics.

When Marcel first applied the term to Jean-Paul Sartre, at a colloquium in 1945, Sartre rejected it.

== Etymology == The term existentialism (French: L'existentialisme) was coined by the French Catholic philosopher Gabriel Marcel in the mid-1940s.

Existentialism would influence many disciplines outside of philosophy, including theology, drama, art, literature, and psychology.

Utilitarianism is a version of consequentialism, which states that the consequences of any action are the only standard of right and wrong.

There is also disagreement as to whether total utility (total utilitarianism) or average utility (average utilitarianism) should be maximized.

The tradition of modern utilitarianism began with Jeremy Bentham, and continued with such philosophers as John Stuart Mill, Henry Sidgwick, R.

Traditionally, only actions that are freely willed are seen as deserving credit or blame.

In contrast, compatibilists hold that free will is compatible with determinism.

Whether free will exists and the implications of whether it exists or not constitute some of the longest-running debates of philosophy.

Some philosophers and thinkers conceive of free will as the capacity to make choices undetermined by past events.

Philosophical discourse is paramount in Stoicism, including the view that the mind is in rational dialogue with itself.

Of all the schools of ancient Western philosophy, Stoicism made the greatest claim to being utterly systematic.

Stoicism emerged from the Cynic tradition and was popularized through public teaching at the Stoa Poikile, a painted colonnade.

Chrysippus's logic differed from term logic because it was based on the analysis of propositions rather than terms.

Since then, it has seen revivals, notably in the Renaissance (Neostoicism) and in the contemporary era.

Its influence extended to Roman thinkers like Seneca and Epictetus and later influenced Christianity and the Renaissance Neostoicism movement.

Skepticism originated from ancient Greece, particularly with figures like Pyrrho, who aimed to avoid making definitive judgments.

The term 'skeptic' comes from the Greek word 'skeptikos', meaning 'investigating' or 'inquiring'.

Skepticism has influenced various fields, including science, as it encourages critical thinking and evidence-based reasoning.

In the 17th century, René Descartes popularized skepticism in Western philosophy, questioning the reliability of our senses and perceptions.

Skeptics often engage in critical analysis and examination of claims, aiming to separate fact from fiction.

Formally, skepticism is a topic of interest in philosophy, particularly epistemology.

Comparative aesthetics analyzes the similarities and differences between traditions such as Western, Indian, Chinese, Islamic, and African aesthetics.

== Definition == Aesthetics, sometimes spelled esthetics, is the systematic study of beauty, art, and taste.

Key questions in aesthetics include "What is art?", "Can aesthetic judgments be objective?", and "How is aesthetic value related to other values?".

In a slightly different sense, the term aesthetics can also refer to particular theories of beauty or to beautiful appearances.

Accordingly, one outlook argues that the philosophy of art is a subfield of aesthetics.