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All life on Earth—including humanity—shares a last universal common ancestor (LUCA), which lived approximately 3.5–3.8 billion years ago.

The process of evolution has given rise to biodiversity at every level of biological organisation.

== Heredity == Evolution in organisms occurs through changes in heritable characteristics—the inherited characteristics of an organism.

They occur after collisions between particles made of quarks, such as fast-moving protons and neutrons in cosmic rays.

These antiparticles can theoretically form a corresponding form of matter called antimatter.

The dominant theory explaining these fundamental particles and fields, along with their dynamics, is called the Standard Model.

Experimental particle physics is the study of these particles in radioactive processes and in particle accelerators such as the Large Hadron Collider.

Theoretical particle physics is the study of these particles in the context of cosmology and quantum theory.

The fundamental particles in the universe are classified in the Standard Model as fermions (matter particles) and bosons (force-carrying particles).

As a result, isolated systems evolve toward thermodynamic equilibrium, where the entropy is highest.

"High" entropy means that energy is more disordered or dispersed, while "low" entropy means that energy is more ordered or concentrated.

He initially described it as transformation-content, in German Verwandlungsinhalt, and later coined the term entropy from a Greek word for transformation.

This behavior is known as deterministic chaos, or simply chaos.

The theory formed the basis for such fields of study as complex dynamical systems, edge of chaos theory and self-assembly processes.

== Introduction == Chaos theory concerns deterministic systems which are predictable for some amount of time and then appear to become random.

In 2022, the graphene market reached an estimated global annual revenue of $380 million.

The existence of graphene was first theorized in 1947 by Philip R.

In 2010, Geim and Novoselov were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for their "groundbreaking experiments regarding the two-dimensional material graphene".

When many hundreds of graphene layers build up, they are called graphite.

In technical terms, graphene is a carbon allotrope consisting of a single layer of atoms arranged in a honeycomb planar nanostructure.

The name "graphene" is derived from "graphite" and the suffix -ene, indicating the presence of double bonds within the carbon structure.

The two DNA strands are known as polynucleotides as they are composed of simpler monomeric units called nucleotides.

Within eukaryotic cells, DNA is organized into long structures called chromosomes.

== Properties == DNA is a long polymer made from repeating units called nucleotides.

Under the genetic code, these RNA strands specify the sequence of amino acids within proteins in a process called translation.

In DNA, the pyrimidines are thymine and cytosine; the purines are adenine and guanine.

Both strands of double-stranded DNA store the same biological information.

Climate change has an increasingly large impact on the environment.

Climate change threatens people with increased flooding, extreme heat, increased food and water scarcity, more disease, and economic loss.

The World Health Organization calls climate change one of the biggest threats to global health in the 21st century.

Poorer communities are responsible for a small share of global emissions, yet have the least ability to adapt and are most vulnerable to climate change.

Under the 2015 Paris Agreement, nations collectively agreed to keep warming "well under 2 °C".

There is widespread support for climate action worldwide, and most countries aim to stop emitting carbon dioxide.

The processes that result in plates and shape Earth's crust are called tectonics.

Plate tectonics came to be accepted by geoscientists after seafloor spreading was validated in the mid- to late 1960s.

Jupiter's moon Europa shows signs of ice crustal plates moving and interacting, similar to Earth's plate tectonics.

Where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of plate boundary (or fault): convergent, divergent, or transform.

Tectonic plates are composed of the oceanic lithosphere and the thicker continental lithosphere, each topped by its own kind of crust.

Along convergent plate boundaries, the process of subduction carries the edge of one plate down under the other plate and into the mantle.